Coptic Tapestry

At the turn of the 19th century Napoleon's campaign through Egypt, spurred a resurgence of interest in Egyptian civilization. Scholars and relic-hunters came to dig in the sands of Egypt for the treasures of the Great Dynasties. They found not only the Dynastic treasures they sought, but a bonanza of textiles and other artifacts from the early Christian era timelessly preserved in the dry climate.

Unfortunately, these later artifacts were only of secondary interest to the diggers, and a great deal of these valuable textiles were destroyed entirely, cut apart or simply undocumented. Once it came time to document these textile finds, little enough remained to classify or date them. They came to be known as "Coptic" textiles, after a sect of the Christian church living in Egypt, because the earliest examples of these textiles date from the early Christian era in Egypt, and were found in Christian-style burials. But because of this decontextualization [so that what comes down to us as "Coptic tapestry" is in fact much more than that.

These textiles span the late Antique (Graeco-Roman) period to the early Islamic period in Egypt. As the Roman, and later Byzantine, Empire became Christianized, there came a great shift in culture. The ancient practice of mummification was prohibited from the 4th century onwards, and Christian-style burials introduced. Now, instead of a mummy in its wrappings, the dead were buried in the best of the clothing they possessed in life, or wrapped in sheets (AAW:TfE VIII). Wall hangings, as well as a few other textile types, have also survived.

The term tapestry is often used to refer to the pictorial aspects of these textiles, but this can be misleading, not least because ornament was only a part, if essential to these textiles, but also because so many more techniques for pictorial representation existed in addition to what weavers call "tapestry" today. (That is, weft-faced plain weave with discontinuous wefts.) It is the tapestry/ornament of the "Coptic" textiles that is most prominent, for three reasons. First of all, tapestry survived the ravages of time better because it is so tightly woven. Secondly, the ornament was most prized and was often cut-away from the ground-cloth or garment (Campbell, AAW:TfE). Lastly, because it is the pictorial representations of tapestry particularly which show the weavers' skills best.

Tapestry was rarely on its own in Coptic textiles. It often provided the ornament for tunics, hats and other garments, as well as for household textiles such as bed linens and wall hangings. Tapestry was most often inwoven into ground-cloths of balanced plain-weave. Ornament was generally only sewn on when it was re-used at a later date on another fabric {slide #11}.

In the 4th century, with its most glorious history long past, Egypt had been conquered first by the Greeks, then the Romans, and finally came under the rule of Byzantium. Egypt's culture was predominantly Graeco-Roman. The Greek knee-length tunic and toga for men, and the stola for women, had replaced the earlier shifts, tunics and loincloths of Dynastic Egyptian fashion {slide #19}. As the Roman/Byzantine Empire became Christianized, the fashion moved towards a new style of dress: the dalmatic (from Dalmatia, modern day Yugoslavia) {slide #20 Thomas 26}. This tunic style, like earlier clothing was generally made from a single whole cloth {slide #22 Burnham 10}. Most importantly, it was often richly ornamented with inwoven designs {slide #21 Burnham 9}. These designs included stripes and patches of various shapes {slide #5 MMoA 27}. Paired panels called "clavi" (sing. clavus) extended over the shoulders from back to front, panels at the knees, L-shaped bands, sleeve bands, neckbands and medallions all presented numerous possibilities for decorative weaving {slide #6 MMoA 25}. Wall hangings and other household textiles could be woven all over with images, or have simple borders, bands, medallions or friezes. {slide #7 Thomas 6}

Before the weaving could be done, the threads must be made. The fibres used most often in early Egypt were linen and wool. Silk and cotton were used less frequently. Cultivation and production was usually done on site or nearby in the case of linen and wool. Spinning was done with a drop spindle, usually by women and servants.

The cultivation of flax has taken place since Neolithic times. It, the preparation and the spinning of the linen thread were the responsibility of the linen weaver and his family. The fiber it produces is long, lustrous and strong and is ideal for weaving. By the New Kingdom, it was of the most excellent quality. Linen sheets of the 18th Dynasty had 118 warp threads to the inch (MMoA 22). However, while it could be and was bleached, linen did not hold dye well. It was used most often for the ground cloth, and sometimes as white weft for tapestry work.

Wool, the second most common fiber, has been produced in Egypt since Dynastic times. The quality was low, however, and most wool was imported from elsewhere. Until the 6th century or so, wool was used only for accent and weft, when it became strong enough to weave the ground cloth as well. The shepherd and his family would likely have done the preparation of the fiber, spinning of the yarn and dyeing. Wool was easily and brightly dyed.(Thomas

Silk was rarely used in Egyptian textiles. Its expense and rarity limited it to the richest and most powerful in the Empire. While sericulture came to Byzantium in the 5th century (Thomas) it was not woven in Egypt until the 8th century (AAW:TfE 6). Dyes for silk were also rare and costly.

Cotton, too, was a late arrival in Egypt, coming in the Hellenistic period. It was initially of poor quality and was rarely used until it was combined with linen in the Islamic period. (AAW 7)

Another step in fibre preparation was dyeing. Wool could be dyed as cloth, thread, fleece or right on the sheep. All dyes were naturally sourced, coming from plants, animals and minerals.

According to The Ancient Art of the Weaver and Textiles from Medieval Egypt, the dyer's palette consisted mainly of purples, reds, blues and yellows. Over-dyeing (of fleece, yarn or cloth), and blending of fleece of two or more colours were the primary methods of obtaining the other colours.

Purple, the most sought-after colour came mainly from three species of snails of the Purpuridae family. These dyes were reserved for the Emperor and high officials because of their expense, rarity and complexity. Preparation of the dye-bath alone could take 2 weeks. Cheaper purples could be made with the crimson-purple lichen Orseille, or by blending red and blue dyes together (e.g. kermes with indigo).

Luxury red came the insect kermes (Kermococcus vermilio), and later from lac-dye (Coccus lacca), another insect. A more common red came from madder (Rubia tinctoria), and to a lesser extent from alkanet (Anclusa tinctoria) which was used more in combination colours.

Blues came from woad (Satis tinctoria) and indigo, which both contain the substance indigotin. Sunt-berry (Acacia nilotica) was native to Egypt and very popular there, but was not very effective or lasting.

Yellow could come from saffron (the sexual parts of the crocus flower), or from unripe pomegranate fruit. Weld (Reseda luteola), imported from Southern Europe was best, while dyer's broom (Genista tinctoria) was useful for over-dyeing woad to produce green. Safflower could produce a red or yellow depending on the mordant, but was not lasting in either case.

Green could come from irises or buckthorn sap, but natural greens are fugitive. Dyer's broom and woad worked best.

Black was a very hard colour to produce. It was more often a purple black made by repeated dyeings with madder and indigo. However, mineral dyes of iron were also used, but they were fugitive and very harsh on the wool.

Three types of looms were used in Egypt during Coptic times. Unfortunately no contemporary representations exist (AAW 10). The two-beam horizontal frame loom was the earliest, in use from the Old Kingdom onward. It was best suited to producing balanced plain weaving of linen. Women operated the horizontal at home and in workshops in Dynastic times. By Coptic times, there were state-owned workshops, plantation workshops and home-weavers. The weavers, most often men, were very poorly paid, over-worked and had very low status.

The vertical loom was introduced from Syria and Mesopotamia to Egypt towards the end of the Middle Kingdom/beginning of the New Kingdom. It was operated by men and was best adapted for weft-faced weave and the weaving of wool. Most dalmatics were woven on very vertical looms in one piece {slide #}, although later they were woven in lengths on narrower horizontal looms.

A third type of loom was in use during Coptic times, possibly as early as the 4th century A.D. and well established by the 7th century A.D. This loom, called a pit loom, consisted of a front beam and back beam aligned horizontally and frame attached to a wall above the weaver's head. The weaver would sit with his back to the wall, with the cloth and warp stretched out in front of him a short ways, and then the warp would double back over his head and hang down weighted over his head. This loom had the advantage of a reduced need for space for long warps, and the ability to separate the warp mechanically in a pattern much like the heddle-and-shaft combination does on a modern loom.{slide #18 AAW:TfE 11}

The main structure in weaving of the time was balanced plain-weave, used for "linens" and the ground-cloth for clothing and other textiles. However, the Copts were familiar with basket, half-basket, twill, and float-weaves, as well as embroidery, doubleweave, brocade, knitting, looped, intertwining and tablet-weaving. Weft-faced plain-weave, and tapestry weave were the main decorative variations, but brocade, loop, knot, and pile-weaves were also used. Often tapestry would be highlighted and figures outlined with soumak and other flying weft techniques. This allowed the intricate detail in the interlace patterns, and in the outlining of figures in pictorial textiles.(Thomas 54-58)

Coptic Art and its Styles

"Coptic" art spans nearly a thousand years of eventful Egyptian history, from c. 300 - 1300 A.D. (Thomas). It is no surprise then that the style changed greatly over time. Because of the poor documentation on virtually all specimens of Coptic textile, it is difficult both to date individual pieces and overall styles. However, in combination with easier-to-date artifacts such as architecture and sculpture, as well as the history of the Coptic Church, there has emerged a tentative chronology of style. (AAW:TfE 16)

Pre-Coptic

Pre-Coptic style covers the time before Constantine, from the 1st to late 3rd centuries A.D.. The style is mainly late Hellenistic, mirroring most of the Mediterranean at the time. The pieces are reminiscent of wall paintings and mosaics. Technically, the figures are well-realized and identifiable. The subject is often mythological figures and stories, personifications of important places or things such as the city of Alexandria, the Nile, or the moon, or nature-based. This theme continues in Coptic art, as it does throughout the Roman and early Byzantine Empires. The "Personification of Luna (Moon) or Head of Diana, Goddess of the Hunt" {slide #1 MMoA 23} which illustrates this early period, was discovered as a burial wrapping, but may have originally been used as a wall hanging. It is woven not in tapestry but loop weave, as many wall hangings of the time were. The subtle shading of the wool resembles mosaic tile. The ground-cloth is linen.

Proto-Coptic

Proto-Coptic style coincides with the official recognition of Christianity, late 3rd to 4th centuries A.D. The style, while still classically-based becomes more abstract, the figures less well realized, and there is a movement away from naturalized to geometric elements. Backgrounds begin to empty, and figures and shapes are outlined in thread. The bulk of the pieces become monochromatic, usually in blue or purple-black and white. While the subject continues to be of a mythological nature, some Christian imagery begins to emerge, such as crosses and fish. {slide #3 MMoA 25}, {slide #4 MMoA 3},

High Coptic

The High Coptic period covers the 5th to 7th centuries A.D. Symbols come to represent pagan gods, "putti" (cherub-like winged figures) replace secondary characters, and often one figure will take the place of an event. Stories from the Old and New Testaments begin to be represented and "orants" (praying figures with arms outstretched), saints and martyrs appear. {slide #10 AAW:TfE 22} Forms are flatter, more stylized, more geometric elements emerge, and colour once again takes center stage. {slide #3 MMoA 25}, {slide #3 MMoA 25}

Early Islamic

The Early Islamic period lasts from the 8th to the 12th centuries A.D. and is the final phase of Coptic art. The trend towards geometric forms reaches its apex, as iconography is discouraged under Islamic rule. {slide #12 Campbell no. 236}{slide #13, Gerspach 15} Pattern replaces image, and sometimes centrality is lost in all-over patterns. At the last, Coptic weaving is absorbed into the "tiraz", and all that is left to weave are phrases from the Koran. {slide #14, Thomas 35}